home

=PACHACAMAC=

Pachacamac was founded in the Early Intermediate period by 200 CE. It is situated roughly 25 miles southeast of Lima, Peru at [|-12.256485, -76.901132] (copy and paste into Google Earth or Maps). It was later conquered and influenced by the Huari and Inca Empires, each leaving their own mark on the civilization. Throughout its history, Pachacamac remained an important political and religious destination. It is located very close to two different water sources, both offering different resources. Just south of Pachacamac is Lurin River, and due west is the Pacific Ocean. It is also in close proximity to the [|Andes mountains], the longest mountain range in the world. Most of the standing architecture were built between 700 and 1500 CE. Pachacamac has played an important religious role since its founding in the second century CE, to the Spanish occupation in the sixteenth; first at the local level, then regional, then pan-regional for ceremonial activities. A PDF map of Pachacamac can be found [|HERE]. = = toc

Time Line
Pachacamac was founded towards the end of the Early Intermediate Period, roughly 200CE, which Izumi Shimada, author of __Pachacamac Archaeology: Retrospect and Prospect__, refers to as Pachacamac I. It was founded by people of the Lima culture who were expanding agriculturally into the lower part of the valley near the coast, originally housing a compound for elites. Beginning with the start the Middle Horizon she names this period Pachacamac A and B; near the end of the Middle Horizon up until the Late Intermediate Period (900 CE) the Wari culture was greatly influencing Pachacamac. The start of the Late Intermediate Period also marks the decline of the Wari culture and influence on the Eastern coastline of Peru. This gave way to Pachacamac III followed by the the Inca conquest and influence in Pachacamac IV. Inca rule lasted from 1465 CE until the Spanish conquest of Peru led by Pizarro in 1532.

During Huari influence from 600-800 CE, Pachacamac was used as a political center. The Huari culture very much influenced art on the ceramics and textiles during this time. There is no evidence though of [|Ayacucho] people in the skeletal record. After the collapse of the Huari empire, control of Pachacamac reverted back to the locals. Roughly AD 1100 began Ichimay, which is what we refer today as the state that formed after the Huari, made up of Pachacamac, the rest of the Lurín valley, and the Rímac valley which includes the Lima culture. During this time many more structures were built including shrines dedicated to deities other than Pacha Kamaq. Pachacamac remained an important huaca for pilgrimages to venerate the creator god Pacha Kamaq in which Pachacamac is named after. Pilgrims came from great distances from as far north as modern day Ecuador and farther Southeast than the Andes in Bolivia. Thousands traveled weeks to months to participate in the rituals and hear from the Pachacamac prophet. As the Inca empire spread Ichimay(Ichma) eventual became part of "the Four Region", Tahuantinsuyo(Tawantinsuyu). Pachacamac was originally excavated by Max Uhle, a German archaeologists, in the 1890s. Uhle excavated the site in a very scientific way; to this day his 1903 study on Pachacamac is used as a basic text for studying South America. He used stratigraphy to note locations of artifacts in space and time. With his detailed account of Pachacamac, we are able to see what it was like to live there at different stages of its millennium of habitation. Uhle found a great number of mummy bundles at the site and many of the mummies from this area that are around the world come from his original excavation. Along with Pachacamac, Max Uhle also spent time studying archaeological sites in Bolivia and other parts of Peru.

 While excavating at Pachacamaq, Uhle found many graves, some preserved very well, the earliest dated to the 6th century BCE, indicating they were venerating their dead well before the founding of Pachacamac. Many of the burials contained strata-baskets of grain vessels, wine gourds, fishing and farming equipment, and foodstuffs. This lends to the idea ancient Andean peoples believed in an afterlife similar to the current. These beliefs prevailed throughout Pachacamac from before Huari, past Chimu, and into Inca times. The care in which the mummies were preserved indicated they wanted deceased's bodies to last forever(Fleming,42). Max Uhle and his great attentiveness to stratigraphy a key reason we know Inca, Tiwanaku, and local groups all had an influence on the city.

Pacha Kamaq
Pacha Kamaq(Pacha camac, Pacha-Camak, Pacharurac, Pachirisu) was the god who the people of the region believed to be the creator of the world. He is also the lord of earthquakes and uses them to remind his followers of his power and wrath who believed he was superior to the sun and moon. According to legend, Pacha Kamaq created the first man and woman. At some point he forgot to give them food and the man died, angered by his neglect, the woman cursed Pacha Kamaq and escaped with her sons from his control so he killed her along with her first son, who Pacha Kamaq cut up into pieces which grew into the plants and vegetables. Wichama, the woman's second son, avenged his mother's death by driving Pacha Kamaq into the sea, therefore making him the god of fish. Other sources say that Pachacamac was the second god to appear in pacific coast legend. Kon created men, women, and fertile land. These first people behaved wickedly and Kon punished them by stopping the rain from falling. Then Pachacamac arose and drove Kon out of the lands. He changed the first people into animals and created a new human race. They showed their gratitude by building temples in his honor. Pachacamac forgot to make it rain again after Kon stopped it, which caused the coast to become arid and sandy(Baudin,35). It is not known if all of the groups of people who occupied Pachacamac believed in and worshiped Pacha Kamaq. It is known that the Ichma state definitely did and the Inca also incorporated it into their belief system, but it is not know if the Huari and other did as well. With each occupation the story of Pacha Kamaq changed slightly. From the creator of the world, to one of Inti's three sons. Like all religions, time and context vary the story considerably. Another example is Viracocha, the first name for the Inca's highest ranked god, they later changed its name to Pachacamak. Pachacamac was clearly an important religious location. It was used as a Huaca(holy place) where thousands of people would gather for ceremonies and special events. An oracle resided at Pachacamac who would act as a voice for the deity of Pachacamac. This idea of an Oracle who could communicate with spirits likely arose early on in Pachacamac's history and lasted over a millennium into Inca and Spanish conquest times. Only priests could have access to the oracle chamber, they would ask questions on behalf of others. Also residing within the chamber was a wooden idol that even the priests were not allowed to view. Different sources argue over whether the Inca banished the oracle or if they allowed this person to stay. Some say that the Oracle consulted the Inca as well and gave them advice. What is know about the Pachacamac when the Inca arrived is that they built at least five new buildings, most of which are temples dedicated to other deities. They also incorporated their religious belief with local ones. The Inca allowed local authority to stay in power and appointed their own followers to other positions of authority to oversee the city.

Mummy Bales
A large number of mummies and mummy bundles have been excavated at Pachacamac. Most are found in the shape of a bale with a false head attached to it near the top. These masks were mostly carved out of wood with eyes made of shell. Other types of false heads were made of pottery, painted with earth tones, and outlined to look more life like(Fleming,43). Others still were cushions stuffed with stems and leaves of the Tillandsia plant and dyed(Vanstan,51). With the body of the deceased at its core, each bale was wrapped with textiles and stuffed with leaves from local fruit trees, often pacae and avocado. A cane frame also lay within to make it more rigid, cotton shrouds were laid over it before the more decorated textiles. More recent studies of the mummy bales have been done with modern technology. Using radiographic examinations have found examples of homicide, disease, and infant sacrifice. Using the child as an example, they have discovered ancient funerary procedures that were used at Pachacamac throughout its history. Using x-rays from around the infant bundle (an x-ray from one angle is not enough because the bales are so thick, multiple angles are needed to get the whole picture) show that the body was deliberately placed in a tightly flexed position. A majority of the bodies studied were preserved by natural processes as opposed to advanced embalming procedures. This is not the case for all though, a Spanish chronicler named Blas Valera noted in the late 1500s, during Inca rule, body organs were removed and Tolu balsam was rubbed on the flesh as a preservative. This would greatly reduce the rate of decomposition, because those organs are some of the first to putrefy and encourage bacterial growth. This elaborate treatment may have only been extended for a very wealthy and privileged few. No recently studied mummies have been prepared in this manner. More often than not, bodies were merely rubbed with fragrant herbs on the skin and then tightly bandaged to exclude being exposed to the air which can cause the cells to break down. There is evidence showing that after the mummy's initial internment, mourners were allowed to bring offerings to show affection, special attendants changed the bale's clothes on a semi regulars basis. Replacing the body's most immediate wrappings greatly increased the chance of its long term survival. Pachacamac women were responsible for weaving the textiles which the priests wore; they also made chicha(beer) which was used in many of the ceremonies and later Inca festivals. They were also used in these ceremonies, often for sacrificial death, the highest ritual. They were strangled, wrapped in fine cloth, then buried in stone-lined tombs. Many of the bodies were found with the cotton garrote still twisted around their throats(Felming,40). These burials were surrounded by funerary offerings from all across Peru including the highlands such as coca, quinoa, and cayenne pepper rather than local plants found in tombs elsewhere in Pachacamac. This was likely to replicate the rituals of human sacrifice that were done each year in Cuzco, the Inca capital."

Artifacts
Thanks to the very arid environment many types of artifacts have been founds at Pachacamac, a great number of textiles and pottery for example. Wood also preserves well in this extremely dry region. By far the most interesting and intriguing artifact at the site was found just in front of the Pachacamac(painted) Temple. This "wooden idol" measured 234cm long and 27 cm in diameter. The idol was stored within a niche inside of the Oracle's chamber. Even high priests of Pachacamac were disallowed to look directly at the idol. A shroud was placed in front of it as a screen. The idol is divided up into three sections. The top portion, most scholars agree, depicts a male and female figure back to back, or male-female Siamese twins. Each figure as its own face and legs but the body and arms are shared. The male is wearing a dress with a maize motif decorated on it and the female, with a yucca motif. This is an example of a long running theme of duality in Andean cultures. Below the pair are many intricate carvings of animals facing each other; some real, some fantasy. There are multiple styles on the idol. parts look like early Wari motifs though other look of an even earlier North Coast religious tradition, depicting their "moon animals". These mythical creatures have attributes of multiple animals such as foxes and felines. "Overall, the carving appears to have strong linkage to celestial creatures and forces that affect terrestrial life"(Izumi,34). The idol is seen as a "tree of life" or symbolizes Pacha Kamaq and his power over life forces.

Pachacamac has not been inhabited for hundreds of years, but thanks to the very arid climate on the coast of Peru, some organic material has been found and researchers have been able to get radiocarbon dates from the artifacts. On the floor of the central atrium of the Pachacamac Temple(Painted Temple), remains of a wood pole made from lúcuma were found within a circular pedestal. The sample was dated to 770 CE ± 70 years. According to the chronological correlation table for Pachacamac located in __Pachacamac Archaeology Retrospect and Prospect__, this barely predates Huari occupation (Izumi,34). Many wooden posts found near the Pyramid with Ramp no.2 date to the 18th and 19th centuries, during Spanish occupation. It should be said there there are also wood samples in the same area dating to the 13th and 14th centuries, during Inca reign. Within the Temple of the Sun there are Concholepas and Mytilus marine shells found associated with Inca ceramics. These shells date to 1849 ± 200 CE. This temple must have had large significance for wide range of time because there are also bits of reed and junco grass found there dating to 1051 ± 150 CE. It should be noted though that the provenance of these findings bust be noted and compared with other samples as it is possible materials from later dates could contaminate said findings. Two examples are as follows: there was modern wood found at the site and also cloth found in a looted burial dates to 1310 ± 180 CE(Izumi,30); was the cloth from the original burial or was it left there by the grave robber?

Architecture and Art
== The first buildings at Pachacamac were built by people of the Lima culture, originally consisting of a residential compound for elites. Some of the first monumental structures were the Sun huaca and Pachacamac Temple.This temple at the site was dedicated to Pacha Kamaq, the creator of the universe and crops. Topa Inca's successor, Quechua Wayna Qhapaq redecorated the temple in 1493 with colorful motifs of animals and birds with its inner door encrusted with corals and turquois. The Inca also donated gold ornaments which adorned the shrine. Hernando Pizarro, the Spanish conquistador heard about the lavish decorations and sought to reap rewards. He sent his brother with troops to Pachamac in 1533 but word got there before they arrived and the the people living there removed everything of value before he and his men arrived. This greatly angered Pizarro and he destroyed the shrine. According to our textbook(Moseley,17), the Incas were never able to take control of Pachacamac. He speculates this irritated the Incas and that is why they told Pizarro about its great wealth, in hopes he would ransack the city.

After years of collecting different types of pottery and comparing each style, archeologists have come up with ten different styles. Using seriation they were able to put them in chronological order: Pachacamac Punctate and Incised Pachacamac, White-on-Red, Pachacamac Negative, Pachacamac Interlocking, Early Lima, Coastal Tiahuanaco, Epigonal, Black-White-Red(late pre-Inca), Black and White on Red, and finally Inca Polychrome/ Inca Associated styles (Izumi,17). As you can see, over hundreds of years Pachacamac pottery and artistic styles changed considerable. Gradual internal changes along with a quicker influence from other cultures such as Wari and Inca

==

When Max Uhle first began excavating Pachacamac in the 19th century he only found one example of an ornately painted structure, and that was at the Pachacamac Temple. later fieldwork revealed polychrome murals of birds and other creatures which decorated the terrace faces up the temple, now called the Painted Temple or Polychrome Temple. On the northwest side of the temple, Jorge Muelle discovered new frescoes in 1939. He found different portions of the temple preserved different art styles and times. Inside the Polychrome Temple, within the Hall of the columns there was one example that showed sixteen superimposed layers of painting. Many of the paintings portray fish and plants, possibly maize, painted in pink and yellow. In the same room the walls and four columns are painted light blue which is the only location at the site in which this color occurs. Painting brushes and bags containing pigments was also found at the site. This evidence helps us see what techniques and pigments the residents used over one thousand years ago. Paints were applied by soaking large balls of cotton and spreading on plastered adobes or rocks. Motifs were applied by brushes made of human hair then outlined with black lines to make certain figures stand out. Much of these murals were dated to the Late Intermediate Period and Late Horizon. This temple as a whole dates to sometime during the Middle Horizon thanks to dates taken from burials found within the temple.

From its beginnings as a getaway for elites, Pachacamac has been an important part of Peruvian culture. This one location on the arid coast has captivated millions of people over millenniums, gathering people from all over ancient South America from Ecuador to Argentina. It is likely the largest and longest running religious center in the western hemisphere. Occupations by multiple outside cultures have not dared change it from its pilgrimage roots into a political center which would have benefited them greatly. It is a shame it was looted then sacked by the Spanish conquistadors, but that is common throughout the Americas, thankfully some ethnohistoric documentation was taken during prime, giving us insight into what was really going on and what these people were experiencing and doing thousands of years ago.

Works Cited
Fleming, Stuart. //"The mummies of Pachacamac: an exceptional legacy from Uhle's 1896 excavation//". __Expedition__ V. 28 (1986): 39-45

Kulmar, Tarmo. "On The Role of Creation And Origin Myths In The Development Of Inca State And Religion". __Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore__, issue: 12. (1999): 7-14.

Shimada, Izumi. __Pachacamac Archaeology: Retrospect and Prospect__. Philadelphia: University Museum of Archeology and Anthropology, 1991

Baudin, Louis. __Daily Life in Peru: Under The Last Incas__. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1955

Vanstan, Ina. __Textiles From Beneath The Temple of Pachacamac, Peru__. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania,, 1967

Moseley, Michael E. __The Incas and their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. London__: Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1992